Brazil and India business environment comparison Essay Example for Free

Brazil and India business environment comparison Essay The United States and Brazil entered into a common agreement targeting to improve democracy in the Western Hemisphere and to bring an accelerated growth in regional trade and development so that the governments of the region can ensure its citizens better scope for greater prosperity. (Common Goals and Challenges in Brazil-US’s Agenda) The prospects for conducting business in Brazil are tremendous in view of its 150 million possible consumers, a hugely diversified economy and a gross domestic product worth of US7 billion. However, till the nation attains improved market and economic reforms, majority of the opportunities for US companies are prone to hover around particular sectors and projects. (Jennings, 14) The closed markets and heavy government interventions marked the economic development of Brazil during the last thirty years. During the 1960s and 1970s, such policies of import substitution and huge levels of international debt generated accelerated growth and industrialization however, giving rise to long term problems like long term economic difficulties, inclusive of high inflation, foreign debt difficulties and non-competitive industries. During the year 1990 the Government of Brazil initiated remarkable market liberalization measures including reduction of trade and investment barriers, declining import duties over 100% to a high of 35% inclusive of an average of 14%. Market liberalization also incorporated several tax and regulatory variations that have been of advantage to the foreign investors. The reduction of taxes on profit remittances and simplification of procedures and withdrawal of some of the disincentives to reinvest the profits have provided increasing scope for business activities in Brazil. As a result, the trend of the reaction of US companies was seen to be remarkable. (Jennings, 14) US companies exported goods of worth $6 billion enabling Brazil to be among the top 20 export markets of the world. The United States tends to maintain the position of being the single country supplier to Brazil constituting about one-third of the total of the Brazilian imports. The telecommunication and informatics market of Brazil extends fabulous prospective for US business, for the equipment manufacturers as well as for the service providers. The Telecommunication sector provides a market worth of $3 billion in Brazil. The US companies have presently extended limited involvement in the telecommunication sector and are exploiting the benefits of extending private networks as well as equipments. The energy sector in Brazil also entails good prospects for US technology as well as equipment. The current agreements and subsequent legislations at higher government levels and the private sectors assures for future prospects. The US equipment manufacturers are encouraged to actually take benefit of the opportunities that already prevail and are prone to expand with regard to the internal demand that promotes the expansion of this sector. (Jennings, 15) The Indian markets along with its over one billion population, provides profitable as well as diverse opportunities for US exporters with the right kind of products, services as well as commitment. Such opportunities are accelerated with the depreciation of dollar in the recent years in relation to its competitive currencies. The infrastructure, high-tech, energy, health care, environmental, transportation as well as defense sector are prone to surpass the tens of billions of dollars mark in the mid-term as the Indian economy tend to globalize as well as emerge stronger. In the year 2005, the total bilateral trade was $26. 77 billion. The US exports to India in 2005 was enhanced to $7. 96 billion, which was a 30. 3 percent growth in comparison to the previous year. (India – Market of the month) The potentiality of India for US companies is promising since India is the second largest small car market of the world; India is one among the three countries that manufactures its own supercomputers; India is the one among the six nations that is able to launch its own satellites and; India is having the second biggest group of software developers immediately after the US. The Indo-US relation is presently growing through a remarkable transition. The two nations which were having a gap between them in political and economic terms during the latter part of the 20th century, presently consider their national goals converging on several areas. (India – Market of the month) Indian tariffs have been decreased considerably since the early part of the 1990s. Irrespective of the fact that the tariff and poor infrastructure entails remarkable challenges for foreign investment and development, the infrastructure needs in India also entail trade and investment facilities for US companies. The best prospects for US firms and US exports on the basis of estimated Indian imports from the US has been earmarked to be â€Å"Airport Ground Handling, Computer and Peripherals, Education Services, Electrical Power Generation, Transmission Distribution Equipment, Food Processing Cold Storage Equipment, Oil Gas Field Machinery, Pollution Control Equipment, Safety and security equipment, Telecommunication equipment, Textile Machinery, water etc†. (India – Market of the month) Condoleezza Rice, Secretary of State for United States and Celso Amorim, Brazilian Foreign Minister in their meeting on 26th April, 2005 in Brazil had a discussion in relation to the common agenda of the two nations as well as that of the unique challenges which were confronting the entire hemisphere. (Common Goals and Challenges in Brazil-US’s Agenda) Brazil as well as Argentina poses certain particular business challenges to be confronted by the US firms. For example, legal provisions with regard to importing technology materials require payment of duties, tariffs and a value added tax VAT which is as much as 22 percent of the total cost in Brazil. The business is even more complex in Brazil due to the variation of importation laws from one province to another. The fluctuating currency exchange rates as well as local economic issues pose grave challenges for conducting business. (Business Spotlight: Arrow South America) Franklin L. Lavin, Under Secretary of Commerce for International Trade, American Chamber of Commerce, New Delhi on May 1st, 2006 remarked that the Indo-US relationship have improved on many fields and have great prospects in the sphere of trade. However, US face remarkable challenges as well. Irrespective of the fact that India has exhibited good trade statistics and the progress in the sphere of economic reforms and are opening markets during the last one and half decade there still need to be improvement in several spheres in order to reflect India’s important part in the world economy. The economic philosophies of Fabian socialism as well as third world nationalism are holding India hostage for many years. As a result of this it has been pointed out that even with 30 percent growth in US exports to India during the last year, India could constitute only 1 percent of all exports of US. The economic reforms in India is in relation to world reforms as a result of this the momentum of India is not impressive in the context of the competition for global attention. (Remarks by Franklin L. Lavin Under Secretary of Commerce for International Trade, American Chamber of Commerce, New Delhi) The annual US exports of $8 billion dollar is what the US ships to Canada within two weeks. In terms of the US foreign direct investment in India the cumulative figure is only $6. 2 billion at the end of 2004, US being the largest investor while the US FDI in Singapore remains amounts to be $56. 9 billion. Irrespective of the fact that tariff for non-agricultural products have significantly reduced, it still remains at 40% in case of agricultural products. The vibrant IPR regime is considered critical to the enhancement of a creative, technologically advanced economy. Irrespective of the fact that India has opened up a silver of its retail sector to foreign investment, presently, the sector is still considered to be closed to most of the American retailers. US companies required to obviate the aggressive competition exerted by the companies from Europe, Canada, Korea and Japan by knowing how to adapt their products as well as facilitate their activities in order to take advantage of the huge potential in India. (Remarks by Franklin L. Lavin Under Secretary of Commerce for International Trade, American Chamber of Commerce, New Delhi) The trading companies are generally prone to four types of risk such as strategic risk, operational risks, internal financial risks and compliance risks. (Sadgrove, 83) The trading risks in Brazil are considered substantially greater in comparison to the developed nations. The political risks like dismissal or appointment of a key government minister can exert influence on the value of the share of the company to have fluctuations. The purchase of shares of Brazilian companies is subject to increasing risks of fluctuations in the exchange rates that may exert considerable losses. Exchange rates also have a tremendous impact on the profitability. Inflationary trends also influence much on the profitability by making the services of the company more expensive. (Sands, 27) For US Government, for over several years Brazil has been a bastion of anti communism while the other states of South America seem to be leaning towards communistic. Moreover, the US companies in Brazil never desire to take the risk by means of their operations being disrupted by that of the shipping turmoil. (Fitzgerald, 20) The US companies engaged in outsourcing of their software development to India are prone to be hurt by the industrial espionage and poor intellectual property safeguards. However, India is seen to have a far outstanding cultural and legal climate for IP protection than many other nations offering offshore coding. (Pedraja; Toman, 164) References Business Spotlight: Arrow South America. Retrieved from http://www. arrow. com/media_center/news/BusinessSpotlightArrowSouthAmerica. htm Accessed 11 December, 2006 Common Goals and Challenges in Brazil-US’s Agenda. 27 April, 2005. Retrieved from http://www. brazzilmag. com/content/view/2207/ Accessed 10 December, 2006 Fitzgerald, Michael. Intellectual property protection. CIO Magazine. 15 November, 2003. pp: 18-21 India – Market of the month. US Commercial Service India. Retrieved from http://www. buyusa. gov/india/en/motm. html? print=1 Accessed 10 December, 2006 Jennings, Horace. Brazil: slowly emerging giant offers enormous potential. Business America. March, 1994. Vol: 115; No: 3; pp: 14-16. Pedraja, Rene de La; Toman, Rene De La Pedraja. Latin American Merchant Shipping in the Age of Global Competition. Greenwood Press. 1999. Remarks by Franklin L. Lavin Under Secretary of Commerce for International Trade, American Chamber of Commerce, New Delhi. 1 May, 2006. Retrieved from http://www. ita. doc. gov/press/speeches/lavin_050106. asp Accessed 11 December, 2006 Sadgrove, Kit. The Complete Guide to Business Risk Management. Gower Publishing, Ltd. 2005. Sands, Gary. The Risks and Rewards of Investing in Brazil. Brazzil Magazine. 23 March, 2005. pp: 27-30

Long Term Illness Essay Example for Free

Long Term Illness Essay In this assignment a focus on an individual with the long term illness/ condition of a stroke will be undertaken, examining the impact of the condition/illness from the perspective of the individual and their family and also the impact of person centred care upon nursing practice. The Nursing and Midwifery Council (NMC, 2008) Code of Professional Conduct Guidance has been maintained throughout this essay and therefore, all names have been altered for the purpose of confidentiality and anonymity. Currently there are around 1. 2 million stroke survivors in the UK, which is every year an estimated 152,000 people. More than half have been left with disabilities that affect their daily life. Stroke can affect anyone, no matter what their age. Around a third of all strokes happen to people under the age of 65, and around 400 children (0-18) have a stroke each year. Furthermore stroke is the largest cause of complex disability in adults. (Stroke Association 2012). A stroke is caused by the interruption of the blood supply to the brain, usually because a blood vessel bursts or is blocked by a clot. This cuts off the supply of oxygen and nutrients, causing damage to the brain tissue (WHO 2012). Mary is a 75 year old white British lady who suffered from a Cerebrovascular Accident (Stroke) approximately five years ago. She is a divorced lady who lives alone in a two storey house, however she has three children and numerous grandchildren who live within walking distance and whom visit on a daily basis. Mary was admitted to hospital as she had sustained a fall, fortunately nothing was broken, but she had suffered with severe bruising to her face and left side of her body resulting in loss of confidence. Mary currently takes medication for hypertension and hypercholesterolemia which her G.P monitors quite closely. On assessment it was identified that Mary has been finding it hard to accept her diagnosis, she was hoping that she would return to the same quality of life that she had before the stroke as she had never been poorly or took medication prior to this happening. CHSS (2012) state that denial initially protects you from being overwhelmed by the changes in your life. Some people may become stuck in denial. The author has chosen this condition/illness as her grandmother suffered from a stroke 10 years ago and fights everyday with her disability, because of this experience the author decided to join the nursing profession and possibly work on a stroke unit or neurology department. This assignment will help to support, educate and contribute to patients ability to care for themselves after being diagnosed with any long term illness and will be part of life long learning, the Royal College of Nursing explain that nurses are committed to lifelong learning and continuous professional development (RCN 2012). Clinical reasons for choosing this condition/illness are that on this placement the author was allocated with the stoma nurses which gave her the opportunity to work on the wards of her choice on the final two weeks of the placement, she chose the stroke unit which also allowed her to complete many achievements and outcomes for example proficiency 2.4 was met which involved working with patients and families in order to use their strengths to achieve their goals and aspirations. As a nurse it is vital that patient centred care is met in todays NHS and the care management of patients with a long term condition meaning putting the patient and their experience foremost, through communication, discussion of treatment options, potential outcomes and possible psychological effects also empowering the patient and allowing them to make choices about their healthcare (Nursing Standard 2011). As Mary was admitted with a fall investigatory questions needed to be asked to find out whether trips and falls are a common occurrence within Mary’s life and whether any member of the multi disciplinary team has implemented any changes to prevent these from happening. Through engaging in a therapeutic relationship allowing us to gain mutual respect and collaboration to develop with Mary she informed us that she has had many trips in her own home and only this one major fall outside, along with her worries and concerns which were listened to attentively. Nicol, J (2011) explain that as a nurse managing risk and promoting health and wellbeing whilst aiming to empower choices to promote self-care must be a priority therefore certain referrals need to be put in place. Firstly a referral to the physiotherapist was made within the hospital in order to improve posture and balance and make sure it is safe for Mary to return home to her own surroundings, as this was not managed post stroke admission and it is within the nurses role to make sure the patient and family are comfortable with there discharge. It is known for stroke suffers to have problems such as weakness, clumsiness or paralysis usually to one side of the body or loss of balance (Stroke Association 2008) which is why Mary has not received any further treatment from a physiotherapist after her stroke five years ago as treatment is stopped when it is no longer producing any marked improvement to your condition (NHS Choices 2012). Although from this admission it is recommend from the physiotherapist that a cane will be useful to Mary in order for her to gain more strength and move about more freely when walking outside within her limitation. A lot of time and advice was given to Mary and her family through discussion, education and effective communication, in order to help her in the decision making process and allowing Mary to realise that regaining independence requires patience (National Stroke Association 2011). Furthermore from a staff nurse’s experience in the past a referral to the Falls clinic was also put in place which was deemed successful from previous stroke survivors who have been left with similar disabilities to Mary and found this useful in the rehabilitation pathway. The Falls Clinic, (2011) aims to reduce your risk of falling and falls-related injuries and review your progress every two months for the first year. From this it enables Mary to be followed up in others ways apart from the GP ensuring that nothing significant is being missed in her care. Good engagement and collaboration allows the patient to gain full confidence and allows the nurse to develop a therapeutic nurse patient relationship providing care in a manner that enables the patient to be an equal partner in achieving wellness, which Mary had never felt before. However the family stepped forward at this point and informed the nursing team that they felt that Mary is starting to struggle around her usual housing environment and made it clear that they had no knowledge of any movement aids or assistive device until this hospital visit and talking to other families with the same problems. A referral to the Occupational Therapist was then put in place to assess and treat the physical condition using specific, purposeful activity to prevent disability and promote independent function in all aspects of daily life (NHS Careers 2012). From this referral it was decided that assistive grab bars, shower seats, supportive hand rails were put in place for easier movement around her home and further safety. This helped put her family at ease as she lives alone and copes by herself. Many stroke survivors continue to improve over a longer time in many different ways. Their recovery is in fact a long period of rehabilitation, as they learn to deal with the effects the stroke has had on them, however the psychological impact of living with a long term condition are very popular such as 30% of patients will suffer from depression at some point post-stroke (British Psychological Society 2010) and a significant proportion these remain undiagnosed or inadequately treated ( Hackett ,Yapa, Parag Anderson 2005). Therefore as a nurse it is vital all the common problems after a stroke are investigated in depth. Upon Mary’s admission these psychological issues were assessed, Mary revealed that she had a feeling of hopelessness as she was unable to look after her younger grandchildren, worrying all the time and unable to sleep furthermore she felt like a burden to her family as they now had to do her housework and her weekly shop. Feelings of loss of energy were also described and a feeling of being isolated from her friends .As this attitude from a nurses perspective is not seen as a positive one the signs and symptoms of depression after stroke were researched. Stroke Association (2012) suggest that it is vital to seek help if four or more symptoms are present which include feeling worthless, avoiding people, feeling anxious or feeling blue and patients with long term conditions being more likely to develop depression, A Two Question Screening Tool was used which also determined that depression was a strong possibility NICE (2009) recommend a two question screen tool to determine who may have depression. These questions link to the key symptoms required for a diagnosis to be made and with both questions answered yes it meant things can be put in place to manage this. However this diagnosis for Mary and her family was hard to accept as she had felt like this for numerous years and nothing had been done about it. The nursing referral to GP for further screening in the community was put in place which has to include the diagnosed stage of depression which for this patient is mild disorder and the treatment and management needed. Then it is the GP’s responsibility to set up an active review which includes self help, cognitive behavioural therapy and exercise (CSIP 2006) NIMH (2011) suggest cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT ), a type of psychotherapy, or talk therapy, that helps people change negative thinking styles and behaviours that may contribute to their depression, from this as a nurse a recommendation of a day hospice was suggested to Mary, as similar patients from the nurses experience had thoroughly enjoyed there time visiting a hospice weekly. This form of empowerment allows Mary to take greater control over decisions and actions affecting her health facilitating choice, self care and self management. Using Gibbs model of reflection (1988) it was clear to me from a student nurse perspective that Marys psychological needs were not adequately addressed, as it took six years to pick up on this adjustment in her life the healthcare in this case was not acceptable. It was upsetting to observe the patient and her family feel frustrated that nothing was done as continuing health care in stroke is a primary need and stroke survivors are eligible for NHS funding for all the individuals assessed needs ( Department of Health 2009) In order to improve nursing the stroke patient the nursing role should involve preventative care which includes providing adequate information on stroke, risk factors and any lifestyle modifications, followed by curative care which involves accurate assessment’s, planned care that is person centred, physiological monitoring and risk assessment. Finally Rehabilitative/ promotive care which entails the carry on role (therapies), safe discharge planning and excellent communication with family/carers in which most of these steps should involve depression awareness and the importance of it as those people who have a Stroke and become depressed, failure to treat results is a less than optimal rehabilitation outcome (Stroke Recovery Association 2010). In addition to this nursing staff should aim to facilitate psychological adjustment and to support understanding of the emotions associated with recovery as the interaction of psychologists and nurses provides an opportunity to normalise patients’ reactions to post-stroke difficulties also they can exchange evidence-based and patient knowledge with each other (Vohora Ogi 2008). In Mary’s case I found that this aspect of her care was dealt with very well as Mary found it a challenge to accept this change in her life the and nurses spent endless amounts of time and dedication to help Mary come to terms with her disabilities. It may be argued that staff nursing levels were a relating factor to Mary’s poor post stroke care, from working on a stroke unit previously the workload is very heavy and consists of many clinicians with appropriate levels of expertise in medicine, nursing, occupational therapy, physiotherapy, speech- language pathology, social work and clinician nutrition. Additional disciplines may include pharmacy, (neuro) psychology and recreation therapy, however it is within the nurses role to ensure all of these clinicians see there patient. In which some cases this maybe missed therefore implementing higher staffing levels may avoid this and signs of Marys depression could have been picked up amongst all of the reviews. In 2005 Lankshear published a systematic review of international research since 1990 that looked at relationships between nurse staffing and patient outcomes. Across the 22 studies covered the report stated that, †[The results] strongly suggest that higher nurse staffing and richer skill mix (especially of registered nurses) are associated with improved patient outcomes, although the effect size cannot be estimated reliably (Royal College of Nursing 2010). This would also be applied when the patient returned to there own home as people who have had a stroke and their carers value continuity, being kept informed, being included and having a clear, consistent point of contact with all the clinicians and services available.(Department of Health 2007). Another implementation that could be put in place not only for Mary’s psychological needs but also her physical needs is that Stroke specialist professionals could be involved in application and review of eligibility for Continuing Health Care in the community so that complex or hidden post stroke deficits which may be missed by generic staff can be considered. This could be included in the six week, six month and annual stroke reviews, and form part of the joint health and social care plan. (Department of Health, 2009). With this put in place Mary’s fall may have been prevented and her home could have become safer for her earlier putting her family at ease and allowing Mary to become more independent and less reliant on help. If the situation arose again and these changes were implemented then Holistic care, which is essential in nursing skills would be successful taking into consideration the psychological, environmental and spiritual needs of the patient, as well as the physical so that people are treated as whole human beings and the impact of the illness on their quality of life is met.(Nursing Standard, 2011). To conclude the role of the nurse in the management of care delivery for the patient and their family is to share their skills and knowledge with patients and their carers, acting as a key resource and providing a route to other services and professionals ( DOH 2005). As a person centred approach was used on this admission for Mary and her family it was clear that she was discharged more aware of services available to her in the community and the care given was beneficial in her life long rehabilitation process, leaving the Multidisciplinary Team confident they have done all they can for the patients individual needs.

Looking At How Children Are Affected By Alcohol Social Work Essay

Looking At How Children Are Affected By Alcohol Social Work Essay The aim of this project is to consider literature and research in Northern Ireland, the UK and worldwide surrounding the relationship between alcohol problems and parenting capacity. Alongside this I wish to map existing service provision for children who are parented by a caregiver who has an alcohol problem and draw on recommendations made by the research evidence. I will highlight relevant Policy and Legislation in relation to reducing risk to children via the Hidden Harm Government report. The implications of this report will be discussed in relation to service provision and the Northern Ireland response. Substance misuse has a clear and direct impact on those connected to the misuse.. the biggest indirect impact is often felt by the children or young people (HHAP, DHSSPSNI, 2008: 2). Nevertheless Kearney et al (2000) in Hayden (2004) point out that the issue is underestimated and insufficiently recognised in social work caseloads. Approximately 250,000 350,000 UK children have a parent with an alcohol problem (Alcohol Concern, 2000). Parental alcohol misuse is associated with a greater occurrence of emotional and behavioural problems throughout childhood and into adulthood (Kroll and Taylor, 2003). According to evidence from Tunnard (2002) social work caseloads have seen parental alcohol problems feature significantly for some time, with around a quarter to a third of allocated cases being families with parental substance misuse (Forrester and Harwin, 2008). Parental functioning may be affected either whilst the parent is intoxicated, hung over or pre-occupied with sourcing their next drink, making them physically and/or emotionally unavailable to the child (Beckett, 2007). At the acute end of the spectrum, substance misuse is over-represented in cases of severe abuse and child death (Reder and Duncan, 1999, in Forrester Harwin, 2006). To analyse the impact parental drinking problems have on children I will explore literature and research from both international and UK perspectives. However it should be noted that methodological weaknesses were evident in some of the studies. For example, there was less focus on womens drinking patterns and it was difficult to comment on pre-schoolers as children were collectively grouped together. Tunnard (2002) notes how there are more UK studies regarding drug than alcohol problems. Scaife (2008) notes how many studies referred to substance misuse rather than drug or alcohol, making it difficult to separate the two and how research ignored fathers at times, focusing gender specifically on mothers. Many studies were also carried out on small numbers of families who had volunteered to participate, this therefore does not account for involuntary service users or those who have not yet recognised their drinking to be problematic. A single definition of alcohol problem is unclear in many studies making comparison between them problematic. Nevertheless, what is clear from the literature is that parenting coupled with an alcohol problem can result in damaging outcomes for children in terms of emotional development and behaviour (Kroll and Taylor, 2003). Misuse of alcohol by parents places children at increased risk of serious harm. It does not follow that such harm is inevitable (Forrester Harwin, 2008: 1520). What I therefore want to avoid suggesting in this project is that misusing alcohol does not automatically infer poor parenting. To do so would serve to reinforce the oppression faced by those with alcohol problems and further heighten barriers to engagement with addiction services. Prevalence of the problem Research by DHSSPS (2008) uncovered that in Northern Ireland 72% of adults drink alcohol, 62% of which drink at least once weekly. 8% of drinkers consume alcohol daily or almost daily, however only 4% identify themselves as heavy drinkers. Local information is limited but it is estimated that one in eleven children in the UK are living with someone who has an alcohol problem and as the result of parental substance misuse approximately 70% of young people are looked after and 40% are on the child protection register and (HHAP, DHSSPSNI, 2008). Brisby et al (1997) propose that approximately 35,000 children in Northern Ireland are living with a parent who is a problematic drinker, with 800,000 in Wales and England and 85,000 children in Scotland. Throughout the United Kingdom, alcohol is readily available and is a socially accepted pastime in peoples lives. Alcohol Concern (2009) reports that due to most adult problem drinkers being part of a wider family the likelihood of this negatively impinging on children is excessive as it is estimated that 1.3 million children are affected. Dore et al (1995) in Hayden (2004) estimate that between fifty to eighty percent of parents known to social services in the USA experience problems with substance misuse. However, it should be noted that differences exist in the treatment of addiction in the UK and USA as the former is focused on Harm reduction social models with the latter being exceptionally disease oriented (Scaife, 2008). This literature review aims to: Investigate what bearing a parental drink problem has on children. Consider the effects on childrens overall development, by studying literature from a sociological and psychological perspective. Examine literature from Northern Ireland, the UK and international sources to establish the influence a parental drink problem can have on a childs well being. Analyse the Government response to families of problematic drinkers by inspecting Northern Ireland and UK policy. Summarise services provided to meet the needs of problem drinkers, identify gaps in current practice and make evidence based proposals for meeting such need. Tunnard (2002) establishes that throughout research there is a clear message that parental problematic drinking is capable of resulting in behavioural, developmental and emotional effects on children. Being placed in an addictions team last year ignited my interest in how alcohol impacts on the entire family and during my final placement learning opportunity in family and child cares Gateway service I found parental problematic drinking to be commonplace amongst new referrals. This, coupled with previous personal experience provided me with a desire to gain a full understanding of the bearing this has on children. I anticipate that this piece of work will enhance my insight in the area and better prepare me for pursuing a Family and Child Care social work role. Alcohol problem in context Various terms are utilised in relation to the concept alcohol problem which causes concern due to the creation of overlap. Tunnard (2002) observes that many studies combine alcohol and drug misuse into the broad term substance misuse. However what does explain the issue well is Tunnards, (2002:8) definition: consumption of alcoholic drink that warrants attention because it seriously and repeatedly affects the drinkers behaviour. Recommended daily quantity guidelines have little bearing as it is not quantity which leads to the repeated affect on behaviour. The American Psychiatric Association utilises the definition of: the maladaptive pattern of use leading to clinically significant impairment or distress characterised by the display at anytime during a one year period of one or more of a specified set of symptoms (Tunnard, 2002:8). Laybourn (1996) studied parental drinking patterns and assessed the effects on the children, finding opportunistic drinking and binge drinking to be the most challenging to families; these most affect routines and parental availability (Tunnard, 2002). Cultural Historical perspectives Bancroft (2007) argues that to address alcohol problems effectively through practice and policy we first need to consider historical and cultural dynamics. Alcohol, which was referred to in biblical times and before, has undoubtedly been a feature of society since the beginning of time (Room et al, 2005a). It is evident that all societies make use of intoxicating substances, with alcohol being used as a social activity (SIRC, 2000). Norwegian research by Skog, (2006) points to the fact that alcohol has been a feature in most cultures since time began despite its consumption varying over the years due to periods of prohibition through the 19th and early 20th centuries. Indeed, the cornerstone of civilisation- agriculture was thought to be utilised in order to harvest grain for the production of beer as much as for bread (SIRC, 2000). The pervasiveness of problematic drinking is not thought to be directly related to consumption. One only has to enter a public house in Northern Ireland on a Friday or Saturday night to observe countless people using alcohol to socialise and drink well above the recommended levels when doing so. The difference being that the majority of these people can control over their intake and can choose to stop in the morning. Marmot (2004) points out that there has been a 50% rise in alcohol consumption over the past 50 years, with approximately 25% of the British population drinking more than recommended levels. It is evident that there has been a rise in the trend to consume alcohol, with problems in connection to drinking including self-harm, suicide, early mortality, homelessness, crime and mental health problems. The National Health Service information centre (2009) reported that the complete household spending on alcohol rose by 86% from 1992 to 2007. Following this period alcohol was 7 5% more affordable than in the eighties, highlighting the trend of it being increasingly affordable and prevalent. Heath (1998) purports that in countries similar to Ireland where there is a high incidence of people experiencing social and psychiatric problems the intake of alcohol is relatively low. However when compared to Italy or France where alcohol use alcohol is high, social and psychiatric problems are less prevalent. Heath (1998) also points to cross-cultural research which implies that behaviours demonstrated as a consequence of alcohol consumption are shaped by cultural and social aspects rather than the chemical effects of alcohol (SIRC, 2000). Difficulties problem drinkers encounter are therefore not necessarily as a result of the alcohol they consume, but cultural factors relating to societal norms, beliefs, and attitudes towards drinking. In every culture, whilst drinking rules are set in place by Government they remain surrounded by self-imposed norms and regulations regarding who may drink what, when and how (SIRC, 2000). Furthermore alcohol may be used as a sign of status; consi der the idea of vineyards, fine wines and champagne for example. Placing some of the blame for alcohol-related behaviours onto society raises questions about how to tackle the issue effectively. This may mean challenging beliefs about the effects of drinking which would not hold favourably with social work values of respect, empowerment or anti-oppressive practice. Regardless of the apparent correlation between parental substance misuse and child care anxieties, British research on the issue remains extremely limited (Tunnard 2002). Contrastingly, American research on the same topic has been plentiful and is thought to be explained by the rise in the use of Cocaine in the United States throughout the 80s. In many states there was a doubling of children being taken into care between 84 and 89 as a consequence of parental substance misuse (Freundlich, 2000, in Forrester Harwin, 2006). However, it is difficult to apply American conclusions to Britain, as families live in different social circumstances and in varying degrees of poverty. As previously alluded to Americas approach to addiction is disease orientated, largely ignoring external causal factors, in contrast to Britains social model whereby an individuals social context is taken into consideration. Psychological Sociological viewpoints Velleman Templeton (2002) estimate around 8 million families live with the effects of a family drink problem, however Kroll (2004) points out that the needs of children of alcoholics are often invisible. Alcohol presents two faces to the family. One face that is of a beneficial and healthful beverage that fosters warmth and intimacy. The other face is that of a potentially hazardous potion that jeopardises ones family through conflict, violence and deprivation (Leonard Eiden, 2007: 286). Moos (2006) purports that strong attachment to a substance misusing parent may increase the possibility of the behaviour being modelled. Kelley et al (2004) studied American college age men and women and found that those who had alcoholic parents were increasingly likely to have an anxious/avoidant or defensive attachment in later life, additionally having an unavailable parent was though to create repetition of poor relationships in adulthood. Bancroft et al (2004) found that children had an awareness of their familys drinking problem, despite parents believing their children were not aware of their alcohol use. They established that parents felt they were still caring for their children as their material needs such as food and clothing were met, whilst most parents cared about their children they were not caring for them. A Danish study by Christensen (1997) in some ways mirrored Bancrofts in relation to parents thinking their children did not have knowledge of their problem. The children were aware and at times felt in some way responsible; they were unable to identify a support network for themselves and usually did not tell although many wished for a break or some form of respite. Parents went to great lengths to ensure their childs physical needs were met yet failed to see the emotional neglect caused by their drinking. Moe et al (2007) studied American children aged 7 to 13 who attended a programme for children of pr oblem drinkers. They found that children benefited from knowing the truth about their parents problem and addiction in general as this assisted them in feeling less to blame. The young people also related abstinence to being a positive factor in having a good life. A Scottish study (Laybourn et al, 1996) which looked at the perspectives of 20 children who were parented by a problem drinker further confirmed how aware children are of their parents drinking. Children expressed their general sadness, worry and anxiety about their parents alcohol problem and talked of how they witnessed outbursts of drunken violence. Alcohol is a disinhibitor, which can reduce an individuals ability to control violent impulses (Beckett, 2007: 126). Some young people adopted the role of care giver for the parent or for siblings and at times acted as an arbitrator or confidant and they spoke of either being late for school on a regular basis or not attending at all. A number of these children believed they would benefit from meeting other young people in similar circumstances (Laybourn et al, 1996). Velleman (2002) recognises how children may experience psychological and behavioural problems alongside physical effects. Family roles and routines are often disrupted su ch as school attendance, communication, special occasions and meal times. The young person may become the carer, protector or mediator within the family (Tunnard, 2002) and have difficulties in relation to trust. It is common for children to have to grow up too soon and effectively miss out or have unresolved developmental stages due to caring for themselves and siblings whilst parents are unavailable (Kroll Taylor, 1998). Lynskey et al (1994) in a New Zealand study found conclusive evidence suggesting adolescents with problem drinking parents were at increased likelihood of experiencing mental health problems such as depression, anxiety, behaviour problems and are at increased risk of going on to misuse substances themselves. The study pointed to over fifty percent of the participants being affected in one or more of these ways. Further New Zealand research by Connolly et al (1993) found that nine year olds whose parents are problem drinkers displayed greater behavioural problems in school in comparison to their peers and 13 these behaviours manifested themselves at home rather than school. Taylor et als (2008) UK study found that issues of guilt and low self-esteem may result in parents feeling undeserving of treatment as they internalise the negative opinions of others. This in turn has potential to create a negative effect on the welfare of their child(ren) as when parents disengage they may be decreasing the help their child receives. Social learning theory proposes how a parents problematic drinking may affect their child: Substance use originates in the substance-specific attitudes and behaviours of the adults and peers who serve as an individuals role models Moos (2006:183). In addition, Parental alcohol use predicts youngsters beliefs in the positive effects of alcohol, which is associated with earlier initiation of alcohol use and subsequent alcohol misuse Moos (2006:185). Vellemen Orford (1999) point out that the problems children face at home may be as a result of disharmony and family conflict rather than the parental drinking problem per-se. Children can feel responsible for this discord and powerless in avoiding and controlling the situation (Kroll, 2004). As social workers we need to be aware of how issues such as domestic violence and financial problems may be interconnected with an alcohol problem. Between 2004 and 2005 3,442 children called Childline regarding a family alcohol problem (Childline, 2006), 44% of whom primarily cited physical abuse as a result of their parents drinking. Furthermore, children tended to speak about the effect of the alcohol problem such as domestic violence or physical abuse before mentioning alcohol. Childline also reported that many callers were talking about caring for their younger siblings, often missing school to do so. Finances were regularly an issue for these children, particularly as there was not always enough money left over to buy food. They described feelings of confusion, worry and of embarrassment of their parent, evidently focusing on the adults feelings rather than their own. Such feelings have the potential to create social isolation for children as they may fear bringing a friend over to play. Alcohol misuse may be coterminous with, or mask, other deficits in parenting, or other relationship problems. Unless tackled, relapse is likely, even if the programme is initially successful (Sheldon McDonald, 2009: 220). Forrester Harwin (2006) noted the strong relationship between substance misuse and domestic violence with 64% of adults who experience such abuse having a family member who has a problem with alcohol. Velleman Orford (1999) established that children living with parental alcohol misuse are likely to find themselves siding with one parent or another by keeping secrets and are five times more likely than their peers to be pulled into parental disagreements. Although no systematic database exists evidence suggests that children are more likely to live with mothers who have problems drinking. Children reported that the feelings of fear and embarrassment were more evident when the parent was female in comparison to the parent being male (Scaife, 2008). The traditional role of a mother is perceived by society as a nurturing care-giver. As a result many children find it hard to accept the shame and embarrassment of their mother having an alcohol problem and can feel let down as a result (Bancroft et al, 2004). In addition, Bancrofts Scottish study (2004) concludes that children had mixed feelings of pity and anger in relation to their parents. Their voices indicated elements of abuse and neglect, coupled with violence, school disruption, unpredictability, role reversal and parental absence. Many young people were cooking for themselves and caring for siblings on a regular basis. Bancroft et al (2004) found that this group of children found Y oung Carers Groups a source of support. Taylor et al (2008) also observed children taking on parenting roles in their UK study. Forrester Harwins (2008) study drew the conclusion that children who were not removed from the family home had poorer outcomes (39%) compared to those who were removed (56%). They also found that girls tended to be more resilient than boys who had a tendency to internalise problems. Children of alcoholics can develop coping strategies and resiliency (Fraser et al, 2008) and go on to look forward to a bright future: while parental drug/alcohol use can fracture parent-child relationships, the damage need not be permanent if parents can resolve their substance-use problems (Fraser et al, 2008: 18). Fraser et al found that many children in their UK study saw Social Workers as important people; keeping their word and believing in the children was highly valued. Parents in this study recognised the damage to their children to include withdrawal, poor school attendance, and behavioural problems; they stated how social services need to provide adequate training for staff in recognising the effects of substance misuse. They cited family upbringing, peer influence and/or specific traumas and tragedies in their lives as triggering their drinking problem. A North American study by Tracy Martin (2007) conclude that children are a motivating factor in parents seeking help, with many being supported by their children aged 6 to 11. Forrester Harwin (2008) noted that in studying 100 families, where minor or decreasing levels of alcohol misuse was evident, children remained in the family home and care proceedings began much sooner with drug misuse compared to alcohol misuse. This highlights the somewhat lenient view society and in turn, social services have on alcohol. It is perceived as normal to utilise alcohol for social purposes, indeed Room (2005b) argues that alcohol holds a high status, for example in the UK or USA speaking of a champagne reception elicits thoughts of pro-social behaviour. Policy Legislation The Children Act (2004) and The Children (NI) Order (1995) established concepts of Child in Need and Significant Harm, highlighting a Trusts legal obligation to identify such notions and safeguard a childs welfare through the provision of services to families. However the pertinent deliberation in all family alcohol misuse cases is not to lose sight of the fact that the welfare of the child is paramount. The UN Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989) ensures that the paramountcy principle is upheld and affords children the opportunity for their voice to be heard. Since the Children Act was implemented the UK has focused social services input on supporting families. The implications of which are apparent in Supporting the Families (1998), Every Child Matters (DfES, 2003), Every Child Matters: Next Steps (DfES, 2004) and Every Child Matters: Change for Children (DfES, 2004). These Green papers set out a National framework for meeting the needs of children, supporting families, foc using on prevention and minimising risk. Murray Shenker (2009) argue that despite these Every Child Matters papers endeavouring to protect and sustain child welfare, policy still fails to acknowledge the distressing influence on family members. In addition, Murray Shenker further argue that Englands Harm reduction strategy overlooks the need to respond to families affected by problem drinking; instead focusing individually on the drinker. Although being criticised for over-focusing on dugs rather than alcohol, the Advisory Council on the Misuse of Drugs Hidden Harm report (2003) recognises how Children deserve to be helped as individuals in their own right (Hidden Harm, 2003:18). Its key messages include acknowledging that services need to work together, treating the parent will benefit the child and that substance misuse affects children of all ages. It recommends that decreasing harm should be the objective of policy and practice and that prompt identification of affected children should be a priority. In addition it stresses the importance of multi-agency collaboration and joint training and resources. Local government have begun to recognise the need to tackle alcohol problems and have generated a Regional action plan: The New Strategic Direction (NSD, 2006-2011) for alcohol and drugs, the overall aim being to reduce drug and alcohol related harm in Northern Ireland. A particular feature of the New Strategic Direction (NSD) is the identification of two themes. These are: children, young people and families and adults, carers and the general public. DHSSPS (2006, NSD: 1.6.1). A further important objective is to ensure that adult addiction services work in collaboration with childrens services to provide a shared policy agenda to improve the lives of young people living with substance misusing parents or carers. The Northern Ireland report- our children and Young people, our shared responsibilities (2006) saw the inspection and consequent reform of child protection services and implementation of Regional Safeguarding boards. Relevant recommendations further highlighted a need for increased inter-agency strategies responding to alcohol and drug misuse and its impact on children. It points to the need for increased inter-agency training and the importance of engaging and consulting with children and families. The 10year Northern Ireland strategy- Our children and Young People, our pledge (2006) identified 6 outcomes expected for all children, including safety and stability which are important factors to be considered when working with young people affected by alcohol in the family. Service User Perspectives Throughout the research, there were various harrowing quotes from children demonstrating their feelings towards their parents which go some way in summarising what they are going through. For example: My mom always told me, You dont tell anyone about what goes on at home, if you tell anybody you wont be living with me anymore so I never told. My life seems like one big secret. Its hard to trust people now (Murray, 1998: 526). A young girl aged 8 goes on to state: I would love my mum to stop drinking but I know she wont (HHAP, DHSSPSNI, 2008: 4) A mother agrees: There should be more family type services addiction affects everyone in the family and this needs addressing (HHAP, DHSSPSNI 2008: 4) I grew up feeling ashamed, frightened, lost, guilty and lonely; feeling unconfident, unsafe, unlistened to, unprotected, unloved, unlovable; feeling there was no-one there, inside or out. (The words of actress Geraldine James: Guardian extract, McVeigh (2010) Through my placement in Family and Childcares Gateway Service it was evident that alcohol was a feature of many referrals. Two service users I worked with spoke of how they had been affected by a family drinking problem. Ms A was removed from the care of her parents in her early teens as they both had problems with alcohol, resulting in Ms A experiencing neglect. She told me of how poor her home circumstances were and how, looking back, she could not believe how long social services permitted her and her siblings to live there. Nevertheless she spoke very warmly of her mother and how of much of an effect her death had on her. Ms Ms husband had a severe alcohol problem and still does; she divorced him when her youngest children were born but recognises the impact his behaviour had on her older children. Ms M experienced domestic violence when he was drunk which was witnessed by the older children. She states how clearly she can see the difference in her older and younger children due to them not having had their father present in their lives. She talked to me about how he would disappear for days, sometimes weeks, leaving her and the children worrying about his whereabouts. Local and Regional Resources There are a number of services and resources operating throughout the voluntary and statutory sectors in Northern Ireland and the UK which aim to support problem drinkers and their families. In order to better prepare workers, Eastern Board training Taking the Lid off supplies staff with training on examining the effects of addiction on the entire family. Trust Community Addictions Teams also utilise Taking the Lid off booklets to assist problem drinking parents in seeing the problem from the perspective of other family members. Service users may be referred to in-patient treatment at Downshire hospital or Carlisle House, for example. Whilst the focus of these resources is on getting specialised help for the parents, as pointed out in the regional HHAP (DHSSPSNI, 2008), assisting them will in turn help the children. AA meetings and Trust addiction team group work programmes afford parents the opportunity to meet with others in the same circumstances and provide a mechanism for workin g through their issues. The Dunlewey centre offers some support and counselling for children, alongside working with their parents on the Key to Change Programme. A book called Rory has been launched by ASCERT, Barnardos, SE Trust and Public Health agencies (BBC News, 2010). This aims to raise awareness of the issues of drinking in the family home and demonstrates to children that it is all right to talk about it. The Barnardos PHAROS service operates in The Eastern Board area, working on supporting and treating families affected by substance misuse, whilst the Dove House Hidden harm project supports children by offering respite and resilience work. The Ego project in the Western Board supports young people at risk of hidden harm via one to one counselling. Within the Eastern board, EDACT operates sub group meetings to allow representatives from voluntary and statutory addiction services to discuss concerning issues and prevent overlap of services. Alateen operates in the UK and Ireland for young people age d 12-17, allowing them to share their familiarity of living with a family member or friend who has an alcohol problem. The regional headquarters is based in Lisburn, with services including a helpline and meetings, sponsored by AA members. Despite these services showing signs of beginning to understand the needs of children it is evident that the focus remains on the adult receiving help. For the majority of services the parents need to be identified and engage with services themselves in order for the children to avail of any assistance. In addition it was clear whilst talking to Social Workers in Gateway that awareness levels need to be raised regarding the type of services available to children and the importance of recognising the effects on them. Whilst the provision of services is essential, Zohhadi et al (2004) point out a number of potential barriers to family engagement with treatment including a lack of parental recognition of their problem and insufficient knowledge of available services. Social stigma creates an added element of secrecy resulting in families feeling marginalised. Society negatively stigmatises alcoholics therefore entering treatment may mean further marginalisation (Room, 2005b). Children r isk normalising their parent(s) behaviour and as consent is required to work with them parents may not permit this for fear their child disclosing the full extent problem and being removed by social services. Taylor et al (2008) noted difficulties in engaging children if parents do not consent and how engagement can lead to the parent feeling labelled. Recommendations and Conclusions It is apparent from the reviewed literature that being parented by a problem drinker has a variety of psycho-social effects on children. A more holistic, systems approach needs to be employed whilst supporting families as other issues tend to take preference ov

William Blake uses this poem in order to convey a message to the :: English Literature

William Blake uses this poem in order to convey a message to the audience regarding childhood. He does this by using various literary and linguistic approaches throughout this piece of writing. The reader can depict that there are two voices used in this poem and they have been presented in a creative way. Blake has chosen to write six stanzas; the first three in the voice of a child, and the second three in the voice of himself. In the first three stanzas, Blake demonstrates contrasts between the feelings of the child. The first stanza is written in the first person narrative, which gives the text a more personal effect. â€Å"I love to rise in the summer morn† This opening line of this poem shows the reader the enthusiasm shared by the child. The abstract noun ‘love’ immediately gives the poem emotion. Its shows exaggeration and gives the reader a pictorial image of how the child would rise in the summer morn. However, this happy emotion is contradicted in the second and third stanzas. The author uses lexical choices such as ‘sighing’, ‘dismay’, and ‘drooping’ which shows the reader that the emotions of the voice in the opening stanzas have been reversed and the atmosphere is no longer pleasant like in stanza one. Blake uses two settings in which the scene is set in this poem. The first stanza reveals the scene as being set in the outdoor. References are made to ‘birds’, ‘winds’ and ‘sings’ which are all things associated with happiness and the outdoors. These are dynamic verbs; used to help emphasise the atmosphere and to what extent the child likes it. The second and third stanzas reveal the scene of being at school, in a classroom. â€Å"But to go to school on a summer morn† This shows us that the child is expressing his feelings towards his school life. The connective ‘But’ gives the reader the impression of uncertainty and hesitation, which strengthens the fact that the child does not enjoy school. The mood of the poem suddenly changes and the reader is made aware of the fact that the child does not enjoy the process in which he is educated. Various contrasts are made throughout the poem to symbolise the contrasting feelings of the child when in the outdoors compared to when at school. â€Å"I love to rise in a summer morn† is contrasting to â€Å"†¦ at times I drooping sit† The author has used opposing verbs in these lines, which shows the difference between what the child voice feels towards two different settings. These two sentences give the reader the impression that the child is eager to get up in the mornings to explore the outdoors

Gender Relations in Chinua Achebes Things Fall Apart Essay -- Things

Gender Relations in Chinua Achebe's Things Fall Apart      Ã‚   In Chinua Achebe's novel Things Fall Apart, the Ibo people's patriarchal society has a strict system of behavioral customs according to gender. These customs strongly restrict the freedom of Ibo women and help to reinforce generation after generation the notion that Ibo men are superior to the women of their tribe.    Among the people of this society, the condition of weakness is strongly associated with the state of being female. The worst insult that a man can receive is to be called a woman. The novel's main character, Okonkwo, is often obsessed with proving his strength as a man because he seeks to escape the reputation of his father who was considered by his fellow clansmen to be weak like a woman. He is ashamed when he learns that "agbala was not only another name for woman, it could also mean a man who had taken no title" when this insult is applied to his father. Okonkwo takes the insecurity of his manliness to extremes, and even unnecessarily kills the adopted son whom he loves deeply in order to prove his unwavering emotional fortitude. "Dazed with fear, Okonkwo drew his machet and cut him down. He was afraid of being thought weak."(43)    In Ibo culture, it is practically a disgrace to be born a female. This attitude is apparent in considering the emphasis placed on women to bear sons in order to carry on the honor of the family. When a woman had borne her third son in succession, her husband "slaughtered a goat for her, as was the custom."(56) A woman is honored only if she could "bear... sons"(82) to carry on a great family's name and honor.    Okonkwo is greatly disappointed by the tendencies of his offspring in their gender roles. H... ... physical power that they can exercise. Although this oppression is deplorable from a modern North American standpoint, from the point of view of the Ibo women of this period it is quite acceptable and none of them feel any necessity to change their social system.    Works Cited Achebe, Chinua. Things Fall Apart. 1958. The Norton Anthology of World Masterpieces, Expanded Edition, Vol. 1. Ed. Maynard Mack. London: Norton, 1995. Mohanty, Chandra Talpade. "Under Western Eyes: Feminist Scholarship and Colonial Discourse." Feminist Review. 30 (Autumn 1988): 65-88. Nnaemeka, Obioma. "Gender Relations and Critical Meditation: From Things Fall Apart to Anthills of the Savannah." Challenging Hierarchies: Issues and Themes In Colonial and Post colonial African Literature. Society and Politics in Africa. Vol 5. New York: Peter Lang Publishing, 1998. 137-160.

The Dramatic Effect of El Nino on Southern Californias Seal and Sea Lion Population :: Animals Nature Environment essays Climate

At the beginning of our winter season, El Nino left some dramatic effects on our seal and sea lion population here in Southern California. Since June of 1997, about 6,000 sea mammals have perished on this San Miguel Island, 50 miles off the Ventura coast. This island is home to the largest population of seals and sea lions south of Alaska. Scientists estimate that there are approximately between 85,000 and 180,000 California sea lions breeding on this island and other Channel Islands. There are about 11,000 Northern Fur Seals on San Miguel Island. The adult sea lions go to northern California and British Columbia after they breed, while the pups are left behind around the central coast. In one of the most physical demonstrations of El Nino, oceanic warming drove away much of their food supply: squid, anchovies, herring, and sardines. The pups are spending most of their energy in search of colder waters for their daily intake of 30 pounds of food. Experts in marine biology are strictly observing and documenting the famine, not attempting to rescue the dying animals. They have been conducting studies on this island since the 1960s. Several rescue groups, such as Sea World located in San Diego, were ready to bring back the starving pups. However, the 1972 Marine Mammal Protection Act prohibits them from going to the remote island and disturbing their natural habitat. Experts would rather wait for the mammals to get washed up ashore than to separate a pup from its mother. The goal is to minimize human impacts. Scientists are now trying to learn from the mistakes they made when studying the effects of the 1983 El Nino. There was a research project conducted on the marine ecosystem at the Punta San Juan de Marcona sea lion reserve, a remote point of land on the coast about three hundred miles south of Lima, Peru. The project consisted of an in-depth study of the sea lion and the ecosystem it inhabits; it focused primarily on the behavior of more than fifteen thousand sea lions, the largest sea lion colony in the South American Pacific. Documenting the sea lions living traits for over 10 years, the biologists are also observing behavioral changes produced by El Nino, the same Pacific current that altered oceanic conditions. When El Nino dampens the point in warmer water, the sea lions' prey swims deeper. Consequently, the pups remain with their mothers longer, until they are able to dive themselves to hunt for food.

Sartre’s Criticisms on Human Essence in the Light of Aristotle’s Philosophy

Our ability to engage in abstraction is, indubitably, a unique gift endowed to our human cognition. And the reason for such a telling contention is near to being self-evident: i. e. , only human persons have the ability to see through otherwise distinct and separate entities, a unifying concept that reveals these things’ common nature, if not their defining essence. To this end, it is necessary to point that our human intellect’s preponderance to abstracting the essences is another facet of human cognition. This is because knowing, akin to seeing, affords us an immediate grasp of reality’s nature and purpose; for by the mere experience of something, say a table, we almost instantly furnish ourselves with a working concept about the thing’s essence – i. e. , we ‘know’ what a table is, what is it for. Thus, it makes sense to say that abstracting essences form part and parcel of both the intuitive and inductive process of a person’s ability to know reality. Our understanding of the concept of essence draws chiefly from the scheme provided by the Greek metaphysics. And herein it would insightful to take cue from Aristotle’s ‘hylemorphic’ framework. According to Aristotle, anything that exists – say, a tree or a dog – is constituted of both an existence and an essence; i. e. , all things both have material and formal constitutions. On the one hand, existence pertains to the act of being, or the facticity of a thing. For example, that table is being actual right when one sees it. On the other hand, essence pertains to the nature of a certain thing. It is that which makes a thing to be what it is; an abstracted concept which makes us see the connection between the entities that we are perceiving (say, a table) and the other things (say, a classroom filled with tables) belonging to the same genre or species (Lavine 71). Essence thus defines the nature of a certain thing or describes the aspect proper to the same. If we proceed with this line of argumentation, we can go on to claim that one can apply the concept of essence to pertain to reality of human persons. From here, we can move to identify conspicuous aspects which may be deemed ‘proper to human persons’, so as to glean what we may call â€Å"human essence† – i. e. , that a person is an existing being, that he shows characteristic elements proper to animals, but that he possess a faculty of intellect and freewill proper to him and him alone. In the ultimate analysis, one can say that the essence defining a human person lies in framing him as a living creature that shares certain characteristic traits of animals, but is endowed nevertheless with the unique faculty of intellect and freewill. Key to this process, it must be argued, is describing the determinate aspects of his very existence. To be sure, we may still identify a good number of characteristic elements that could equally describe what it means to be human person. And surely, we cannot stop at construing fundamental animality and rationality as aspects that sufficiently capture the â€Å"whatness† of humanity; for the reasoned construction of human essences does not entail that we have completely circumscribed the total reality of human persons. That having said, Jean Paul Sartre believes that humanity has no fixed essence. In other words, he believes that humanity cannot be framed within the parameters of determinateness or the limits we impose by construing human essences. At the very least, Sartre contends that we cannot define the contours of what it means to be a person because our freedom determines the unique manner of our very existence. J. Sartre’s contention fundamentally draws from his concept of absolute human freedom. A thinker who belongs to the erstwhile group of philosophers known as Existentialists, Sartre’s philosophy puts higher premium than most on appreciating human existence as a concrete and perpetual striving for one’s own becoming (Marias 436). This means that, for Sartre, we as human persons must constantly appreciate the fact we exist, more than the fact that we have an essence to frame our subsequent courses of actions. Sartre believes that â€Å"we are necessarily free†, and that the burden of â€Å"making† our own human essence lies in the choices that we make (Marias 440). Put in layman’s terms, Sartre believes that our freedom is absolute, and that, even more importantly, the choices we make determine the kind of person that we are. In a way, Sartre reverses the logic of human essence – i. e. , human actions does not flow from one’s own essence; instead, human essence is molded by the actions that we as persons commit to doing. For such reason, and as mentioned earlier, Sartre believes that humanity has no fixed essence. And insofar as the concrete form of our human essence takes cue only from the activities which human persons do, Sartre rests his case on the plain assumption that one’s life cannot be placed within any restricting concepts of essence, for any reason whatsoever (Marias 440-441). There are reasons to think, however, that Sartre may have framed human freedom quite radically and that his wholesale denial of an identifiable human essence may have been taken quite drastically. To this end, strains of Aristotle’s philosophy may be helpful in shedding light into some of the oversights Sartre may have committed in denying the tenability of human essence on account of absolute freedom. Firstly, it may be insightful to be reminded of the fact that Aristotle understands human essence as an aspect of life that does not effectively restrict human capacity to determine one’s path according to the sets of actions a person may willingly opt for. Human essence merely speaks of the kind or quality of existence which is construable from and identifiable in a certain thing (Lavine 71). It merely serves to help man appreciate what kind of creature he is by way of categories and definitions. Conversely, the concept of human essence does not, in any whatsoever, imply an absolute determination of human reality according to these set of classification or categorization. An example may help further situate the conundrum: when someone thinks of man as essentially a spiritual being – i. e. , the capacity for spiritual relations with God belongs properly to the characteristic trait of humanity – one does not rule out the possibility of not believing in God all together. Instead, one merely makes a statement about the humanity’s general preponderance to worshipping a deity, notwithstanding personal choice to dissent. The same goes true for human essence. Sartre thinks that humanity has not a fixed essence on account of a human freedom that determines a resulting human nature. Unfortunately for Sartre, human essence and human freedom are not mutually exclusive. In fact, a person’s freedom is only affirmed, if not accentuated by the fact that the human essence is defined by a tacit acknowledgement of man’s of basic rationality and capacity for freewill. Secondly, Sartre’s contention that human persons have no fixed essence is certainly difficult to argue precisely because human freedom is really not absolute and that humanity’s basic essence does not depend on human choice but on what nature has fundamentally given. Two aspects come into play with in this particular rebuttal. In the first place, Sartre may have taken human freedom quite radically in arguing that it our capacity to determine ourselves must be taken in absolute terms – i. e. , we can do whatever we wish; besides, we are the ones determining our resulting essence in the process. This, unfortunately, is untenable. For instance, if I, born as a human person, were to choose living like a dog, I would probably find certain dog-like activities incongruent with my natural bodily processes. I would find it difficult to bark, let alone walk in a four-legged manner; as these are not consistent with how was I born and raised. The point in contention here lies in arguing that human freedom, contrary to Sartre’s arguments, cannot be taken as an absolute determinant of human nature. On the contrary one may find it difficult to deliberately deviate from the demands of our basic human essence. Such difficulty should bring us more into an appreciation of our human nature not really as an aspect dependent on human choice, but an aspect that is made perfect by the choices that we make. Herein Aristotle’s teleological philosophy appears to take shape. According to Aristotle, essence precedes actions, or essence precedes existence; and that the perfection of all actions comes when they fulfill the essence in question (Marias 74). For instance, when a person uses critical thinking before making a judgment, such an act can be considered as a perfection of the man’s nature as a rational entity. The point in contention here lies in arguing that we cannot really do away with human nature. On the contrary, our actions must run consistent with it; for only when we act according to our nature can our actions be perfected according to our essence. By way of conclusion, I wish to end with a thought that dismisses Sartre’s contention – i. . , that humanity cannot find a common essence proper to himself and himself alone – on account of its patent inability to take into account the true state of human affairs. In the discussions that were developed, it was learned that Sartre’s refutation of human essence stems from his belief that human freedom is absolute, and that human persons are the ones molding their respective essences. However, there are surely good reasons to think that this p hilosophical stances does not hold water. First, it has been argued that the concept of human essence does not in any way defeat the reality of human freedom. Human nature and human freedom, it was argued, are not mutually exclusive. Second, Sartre appears to have neglected the fact that human freedom cannot be equated with the capacity to do what one wishes, regardless of what nature has already given. There is no such thing as an absolute freedom. And in the final analysis, we have to admit that we are bound by a certain essence, no matter how hard try to deviate from it.